CHRONOLOGY OF EARTH
*-15 billion => big bang
*-5 billion => earth formed
*-3.5 billion => first bacterium-like fossils, West Australia and South Africa
*-1.2 billion => first protoctist fossils
*-600 million => first animal fossils
*-470 million => first fungus fossils
*-430 million => first plant fossils
*-420 million => horseshoe crabs (Limulus in phylum Chelicerata), virtually unchanged from modern day Limulus
*-310 million => scorpions present, the most primitive arachnids (phylum Chelicerata)
*-200 million => first cockroach fossils
*-140 million => angiosperm pollen grain fossils
*-120 million => earliest preserved flowering plant fossils (angiosperm)
*-65 million => fossils of the modern-day angiosperms appear
*-60 million => massive extinction of dinosaurs
-500000 => fire invented
-30000 => modern human beings now the only human species remaining on the planet
-20000 => Cave drawings - Altamira Spain
-12000 => animal domestication. Glaciers recede
-10000 => virtually entire planet now settled by man
-8000 => Agriculture and first city (in Iraq). 5 million humans on earth
-3600 => first occupational health hazard, copper alloy contaminated by arsenic
-3500 => writing invented
-2800 => modern solar calendar invented
-2500 => Gilgamesh story written in Sumeria
*-2000 => Sundials used in Egypt
-1800 => Fermented wine, leavened bread invented
-1775 => Hammurabi's laws engraved in stone, in Babylon
-1600 => Thera erupts, destryoing Minoan civilation and wreaking havoc in Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean regions
-1550 => Ebers papyrus of ancient "cures"
-1500 => Phoenician alphabet (replaces pictograph writing)
*-1470 => Thera explodes decimating neighbor Crete
-1375 => Monotheism invented by Amenhotep, beating Abraham by several centuries
-1200 => Trojan horse invented
-640 => Ashurbanipal library
*-460 => Hippocrates used boiled water when irrigating wounds (first use of asepsis)
-429 => plague in Greece
-420 => Hippocrates observed that each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body,
-350 => Aristotle determines that earth must be round
-350 => Aristotle classifies animals
-320 => Theophrastus classifies plants
-312 => Alexander the Great dies
-300 => Euclid's Elements written in Alexandria. Becomes geometry standard for over 2,000 years and counting.
-300 => Pytheas sails from Greece to Iceland. Nobody believes him.
-300 => Pytheas describes Atlantic tides (absent in Mediterranean). Nobody believes him.
-280 => Aristarchus reasons that the sun is the center of the universe
-260 => Archimedes describes principles of levers
-260 => Archimedes calculates Pi as 3.142
-240 => Eratosthenes, working in Alexandria, computes size of earth correctly
-214 => Great wall of China
-150 => Hipparchus calculates distance to moon correctly, 250,000 miles
-146 => Carthage destroyed by Rome
-134 => Hipparchus finds a newly appearing star
-134 => Hipparchus makes first star map
*60 => Materia Medica written by Dioscorides, establishing botanical medicine
105 => Paper invented in China
250 => Diophantes writes first algebra book
*300 => Hourglasses widely used
622 => Mohammed flees from Mecca to Medina (Hegira), year zero for Muslims
673 => Greek fire invented in time to save Constantinople from Arab invasion
750 => Mayan empire at its height
810 => Zero invented by Al-Khwarizmi
827 => Abassad Muslim empire reaches height
868 => *First printed book, Diamond Sutra, published in China, with woodblock type
870 => Ottar the Viking visits Arctic Circle
982 => Russians attack Constantinople and fought off with Greek fire
1025 => Mayan civilization declines
1054 => Eastern Christian Church led by Patriarch of Constantinople. The Patriarch's excommunication created split betwen Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches
1066 => William of Normandy takes England. All later English Monarchs descended from him.
1095 => Pope Urban II launches crusade to defend Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) and to free Holy Land
1147 => Second Crusade, a complete disaster
1180 => Europeans use magnetic compass to guide ships, leading eventually to European world domination
1189 => Third Crusade, a failure
1202 => Fibonacci introduces Arabic numerals to West
1242 => Arabic scholar Ibn an-Nafis describes heart-lung role in circulation and aeration four centuries before Wlliam Harvey om 1628
1291 => Glass mirrors invented in Venice, along with inveting the concept of a "Trade secret"
*1300 => First mechanical clocks installed in European towers
1316 => Dissections in Italian Medical School
*1316 => European famine year - 10-15% of population dies in this famine
*1350 => European plague year. About 25 million dead (out of 65-75 million Europeans)
1424 => Yung-Lo, Chinese Emperor who had raised enormous navy, led by Cheng Ho, dies. Successor chooses to dismantle navy and isolate China.
1420 => Torquemada grand inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition
1436 => Perspective invented and art becomes 3-D
1453 => End of hundred years war. England fails to conquer France.
1453 => Fall of Constantinople to Moslem Turks. Ends the Eastern Roman Empire, which lasted 1000 years after the fall of Rome.
1454 => Gutenberg Bibles (300 editions), probably jumpstarting the Renaissance
1497 => Vasco da Gama sails from Lisbon to Calcutta around Africa
1497 => Da Gama's adventure was first voyage sufficiently long to induce scurvy, killing 3/5 of his men
*1499 => Johannes Trithemius writes Steganographia (not actually published until 1606) on cryptography and steganography
1501 => Spanish brought black slaves to West Indies, beginning the slave trade
1504 => Mainspring watches
1512 => Portuguese land in Canton, China
1517 => Luther's 95 theses, beginning the Protestand reformation
*1518 => Johannes Trithemius publishes Polygraphia on cryptography
1519 => Cortes arrives in Mexico and destroys Aztec civilization
1520 => Ottoman empire under Suleyman the Magnificent at its peak of power
1523 => Magellan circumnavigates the earth (actually he died in Philippines en route)
1531 => Pizarro conquers Incas in Peru
1534 => Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn and Anglican Church born
*1543 => Andreas Vesalius presents "De Humani Corporis Fabrica," detailing human anatomy
1543 => Copernicus agrees with Aristarchus in heliocentric system and explained planetary orbits with math. Waits until day of his death to publish book.
1545 => Pare greatly improved surgical technique and published in French (not Latin)
1545 => Negative numbers
1551 => Trigonometric Tables
1555 => Pierre Belon finds similarities (homologies) in skeletons of all vertebrates
1572 => Tycho Brahe reports a new star in sky, challenging belief in fixed universe
1586 => Stevin invents decimals
1589 => Viete decrypts leading "unbreakable code" used by Phillip II
1590 => First microscope by Janssen
1591 => x,y coordinates invented by Viete, father of cryptanalysis
1592 => First crude thermometer
1596 => Ludolf calculates Pi to 20 decimal places
1609 => Kepler claims that planets move in ellipses
1609 => Galileo discovers Milky Way composed of many stars
1612 => First nebula (Andromeda nebula) described, by Simon Marius
1614 => Logarithms - Napier
1622 => Slide rule invented
1627 => First scientific tables of planetary motionpublished (Rudolphine Tables)
1636 => Magna Charta (Magna Carta) is first tissue resource legislation, stating that the right to the remnants of all persons executed within a 21 mile radius from Oxford fell to the anatomical institute of the city's university.
1637 => Fermat's last theorem
1642 => Inca indians had long known that bark from cinchona tree treats malaria. In 1642 this treatment reached Europe where it was called quinine.
*1648 => Jean Baptiste van Helmont rejects belief that plants are fed by the soil. First major breakthrough towards understanding photosynthesis was this rejection of dogma.
1653 => Rudbeck discovers lymphatics
1654 => Probabilities of various dice combinations worked out by Pascal and Fermat, laying foundations of probability theory
*1657 => Christian Huygens builds first pendulum clock
1666 => Newton determines that white light is composed of different colors.
1667 => Thomas Willis publishes Pathologicae cerebri, et nervosi generis specimen, a work on the anatomy, pathology and neurophysiology of the brain.
1668 => Redi disproves spontaneous generation
1669 => Newton and Leibniz invent calculus
1669 => Steno explains that fossils are petrified remains of long dead creatures
1675 => Speed of light calculated as 141,000 miles per second by Roemer
1676 => van Leeuwenhoek sees microorganisms (which he called animalcules) in pond water
1677 => van Leeuwenhoek sees sperm in semen
1678 => Edmond Halley travels to south Atlantic and charts the Southern stars for Europeans who had never seen the Southern sky.
1680 => Last dodo dies on Mauritius in Indian Ocean
1683 => Leeuwenhoek uses microscope and discovers bacteria
1685 => imaginary numbers invented
1691 => Ray's animal classification supersedes that of the Roman, Pliny.
1693 => first mortality tables by Edmond Halley (first scientific demonstration that the older you get, the more likely you are to die)
1707 => First precision instrument in medicine, the pulse watch, ran for a minute exactly and stopped (until re-wound)
*1711 => First commercial steam engine developed by Thomas Newcomen, a British blacksmith who had almost no formal education
1713 => First crude vaccination for smallpox (from pus of people with mild disease)
1728 => Harrison invents terrific chronometer in a British competition. Did not get full prize money until 1773.
1733 => Hall makes achromatic lens. Dolland's 1757 achromatics lens often incorrectly given credit
1733 => Normal distribution introduced (as per Stigler's Statistics on the Table)
1735 => Carl von Linne (Linnaeus) publishes Systema Naturae
1742 => Goldbach's conjecture. All even numbers greater than 2 can be expressed as sum of primes
1744 => Concept of transcendental numbers invented by Euler. These can't be expressed as a polynomial expression. First transcendental number determined in 1873
1747 => Lind determines that citrus prevents scurvy. Takes another 50 years before British navy listens.
1751 => First modern encyclopedia published by Diderot
*1754 => Charles Bonnet observes gas bubbles coming from green leaves held underwater under bright lighting. Major clue to understanding photosynthesis.
1759 => Kaspar Friedrich Wolff, father of embryology, shows that specialized organs develop from unspecialized tissue
1760 => Giovanni Battista Morgagni, father of pathology, publishes results of 640 autopsies. Credited as the beginning of modern pathology.
1768 => Spallanzani shows refutes spontaneous generation using heated and carefully sealed broth containers
1771 => Messier publishes 45 celestial fuzzy objects (nebula) for the purpose of distinguishing these from [more interesting] comets
1773 => Muller sees bacilli and divides them into different morphologic types
1772 => Scheele discovers oxygen 2 years before Priestley but loses credit when publisher fails to put work into print
1774 => Scheele does fundamental work discovering Manganese, but Gahn finishes effort and gets all the credit
1774 => Scheele isolates chlorine but fails to identify it as element. Gets no credit.
1775 => Withering tests fox-glove from "old wives tale" and digitalis is re-discovered
1781 => Herschel infers the existence of binary stars, using Newton's principles and showing that physics of distant stars behaves the same as here.
1784 => Benjamin Franklin invents bifocal lenses
1787 => Lavoisier and coworkers publish The Method of Chemical Nomenclature, giving chemistry a common language that has persisted to this day.
1779 => First human parachutist.
*1796 => Carl Friedrich Gauss invents modular arithmetic
*1796 => Carl Friedrich Gauss proves quadratic reciprocity law
1796 => Jenner vaccinates against smallpox using cowpox incoluation. Next vaccination not until 1881 when Paster vaccinates against anthrax.
1798 => Interchangeable parts invented by Eli Whitney (used for muskets)
1798 => Cavendish measures the gravitational constant and computes (correctly) the mass of the earth.
1799 => Law of Definite Proportions, by Joseph-Louis Proust. Distinguishes between mixtures (parts in any proportion) and true compounds (elements in definite proportions).
1799 => Rosetta stone found in Rosetta, Egypt. Inscription in Greek and two types of Egyptian (I think hieroglyph and cuneiform).
1800 => Bichat showed that organs made from different types of tissues - histology begins.
1803 => John Dalton publishes New System of Chemical Philosophy and vindicates (through experiment) the ancient Greeks who "invented" atoms in 440 BC (Democritus)
1810 => Central Limit Theorem proved (as per Stigler's Statistics on the Table)
1812 => Candolle invents the word "taxonomy."
1813 => Candolle creates plant classification still used today
1814 => Spectral lines observed and counted by Fraunhofer using very good prisms. Observation had no use for chemists and astronomers for another 50 years
1816 => Stethoscope invented
1818 => Encke's comet named for man who calculated orbit, not man who sighted comet.
1822 => Babbage conceives of computer
1822 => After discovery of Rosetta Stone (1799) little progress was made deciphering hieroglyphics until work of Champollion, founder of modern Egyptology.
1823 => Prout shows stomach contains hydrochloric acid.
*1824 => Carnot publishes Reflexions on the motive power of fire. Showed that limitations in steam engine were inherent in the way nature that the universe worked. Ignored for over 20 years.
1824 => Portland cement invented, first real improvement over the cement used by ancient Romans.
1824 => Abel (1802-1829) proves that it is impossible to find solutions to quintic equations.
*1826 => First permanent photograph, by French inventor Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1765-1833).
1827 => Prout classifies foods as, roughly, carbohydrate, fat or protein.
1828 => Wohler synthesizes urea, destroying the distinction between living matter and chemicals.
1830 => Achromatic microscope invented by Joseph Jackson Lister. Now bacteria could be visualized.
1833 => Diastase extracted by Payen, showing that chemicals obtained from living things (sugar beets in this case) could display their activity outside the organism.
1838 => Morse code invented.
1838 => Proteins discovered.
1846 => Rawlinson uses the ancient Persion king Darius' mountain inscription of his ascension to the throne, written in Persian, Assyrian and Elamitic as the Rosetta stone of cuneiform text.
1847 => Semmelweiss reduces rate of puerperal fever by hand-washing. Hand-washing soon abandoned by hospital staff. See 1865.
1854 => Cholera epidemic in London ended by John Snow who removed a water pump handle used by people where disease incidence highest. Earley use of hygiene to prevent disease.
1856 => Pasteurization
*1857 => Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor first discoverer of radioactivity when he noticed that a solution of uranium nitrate produces an image of itself when drawn on a photographic plate. Probably didn't understand significance.
1858 => Rudolph Virchow publishes Cellular Pathology
1859 => Darwin's The Origin of Species is published
1859 => Kirchoff announces that every element produces characteristic spectral lines.
1860 => Pasteur disproves spontaneous generation again (see Spallanzini 1768).
1862 => Pasteur publishes article advancing germ theory of disease.
1863 => Irish physicist John Tyndall discovers greenhouse effect (carbon dioxide transparent to incoming light but opaque to re-radiated infrared light).
1863 => First Salon de Refuses sponsored by the French government to display the art rejected by the traditional Salon. The rejected art (of impressionists) proved to be much more influential than the accepted art and strengthened popular support for innovation.
1865 => Lister introduces phenol in surgical suite. Post-op sepsis rates drop. See 1847.
1865 => Mendel's laws of genetics published but ignored for another 33 years.
1865 => Maxwell's equations relating electricity to magnetism, brought about the first unification in physics.
*1867 => Newton publishes Principia
*1869 => One-armed civil war veteran John Wesley Powell is denied federal funding and explores Grand Canyon on privately raised funds.
1869 => Mendeleyev prepares periodic table of elements
1869 => Nucleic acid isolated by Miescher and Hoppe-Seyler
1871 => Darwin publishes The Descent of Man
1872 => Ferdinand Julius Cohn publishes 3-volume classification of bacteria into genera and species.
1873 => Hermite shows that e is the first transcendental number found.
1876 => Koch devlops his postulates for disease causation, using anthrax model. Also develops techniques for culturing bacteria.
1876 => Bell credited with invention of telephone
1879 => Edison's invention of electric light bulb.
1880 => Electric calculator invented for use in the 1880 census, by Hollerith.
1880 => Laveran identifies the organism that causes malaria as a one-celled animal.
1880 => Eberth identifies the bacillus that causes typoid fever.
1881 => Sternberg isolates pneumococcus.
1881 => Pasteur vaccinates against anthrax.
1882 => von Lindemann shows that Pi is transcendental.
1882 => Koch isolates tubercle bacillus.
1883 => Klebs discovers the bacteria that causes diphtheria.
*1884 => World Time Conference in Washington, D.C. recognizes Greenwich Observatory as prime meridian against which world time is standardized.
1884 => Gram stains positive and negative bacteria.
1885 => Pasteur vaccinates against rabies.
1885 => Galton observes that fingerprints are unique
1865 => Maxwell's equations unifies electricity and magnetism and light. First unification in physics.
*1888 => Waldeyer coins term chromosome.
1889 => Cordite invented, reducing the amount of smoke produced by gunpowder.
1889 => Kitasato isolates bacillus that causes tetanus.
1890 => Halsted "perfects" radical mastectomy.
1890 => Surgical gloves used (by Halsted).
1893 => Theobald Smith shows that cattle fever spread by ticks carrying a protozoan parasite. First demonstration of disease spread by arthropods.
1896 => Eijkman corrects beri beri with unpolished rice. Work based on chicken animal model of beri beri, chicken polyneuritis.
*1896 => Henri Becquerel rediscovers radioactivity when he notices uranium and pitchblend fog photographic plates in the dark.
1897 => Ross shows that malaria can be spread by anopheles mosquito.
1898 => Botanist Beijerinck infers that a filterable virus (virus is latin for poison) that causes tobacco mosaic virus disease. Essentially, this marks invention of viruses.
1898 => Benda discovers mitochondria.
*1900 => France abandons efforts to try to replace days and hours with a decimal time system.
1900 => Lazear dies from yellow fever experiment in which he allowed mosquitoes that had stung yellow fever patients to sting him.
1900 => Karl Landsteiner finds O, A, and AB blood groups
*1901 => Deep-drilling technology yields first deep oil gusher, 1,020 feet, in Texas, indicating that vast oil reserves could be drilled and tapped
*1903 => First known successful manned flight powered by engine by Wright Brothers (120 feet in 12 seconds).
*1905 => last U.S. outbreak of yellow fever, in New Orleans.
1905 => Albert Einstein publishes special reltativity theory.
1908 => Ricketts discovers rickettsia as the pathogenic agent spread by cattle ticks to cause Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
1910 => Sickle cell anemia first described in paper by Herrick
1911 => Peyton Rous discovers the first tumor virus, the Rouse chicken sarcoma virus.
*1912 => Nikolai Anichkov discovered that cholesterol responsible for coronary artery disease.
*1912=> Henrietta Swan Leavitt shows that cepheids can be used to deterimine distances to galaxies.
1915 => Pellagra found to be non-infectious disease produced by poor diet. Vitamin deficiency still unknown at this time.
1916 => Einstein publishes general theory of relativity.
*1916 => Schwarzschild theorizes the existence of black holes (first use of general theory).
*1917 => Jan 16, 1917, Zimmermann telegram intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Provided proof to the U.S. that Germany was courting Mexico to join with Germany against the (then neutral) U.S.
*1917 => April 6, 1917. U.S. declares war on Germany
*1918 => World influenza epidemic, 1918 - 1919 kills 20 to 40 million people between fall 1918 and winter 1919. Killed more people than World War I.
*1919 => WWI ends after 20 million war-related deaths in military and civilian populations. Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919 (ending WWI) though an armistice with Germany was in place November 11, 1918.
*1921 => Sheppard-Towner Act was passed by Congress, giving federal aid to states in effort to reduce infant mortality. Bill repealed in 1929.
*1925 => Heisenberg, Born, Jordan formulate 1st version of quantum mechanics.
*1927 => Werner Heisenberg discovered the uncertainty principle.
*1928 => Fleming noticestat Penicillium rubrum inhibits growth of staph.
1930 => Vitamin A synthesized.
1932 => Prontosil, dye with antibiotic properties.
1932 => Land invents synthetic polarizing lens by embedding crystals in plastic film.
1932 => Quinacrine, a synthetic substitute for quinine, provides large quantities of malaria medicine.
1932 => electron microscope. Much-improved electron microscope made in 1937.
*1933 => Birth of Modern Mathematical Statistics (as per Stigler's Statistics on the Table).
1935 => Sulfanilamide and sulfa drugs derived from prontosil and with more antibiotic activity.
1935 => radar invented by Robert Alexander Watson-Watt.
1935 => riboflavine synthesized.
1935 => Kendall isolates the adrenal corticosteroids, including cortisone.
1936 => Thiamine isolated and synthesized. Cures beri beri.
1937 => Safe and effective vaccine against yellow fever (Max Theiler).
*1937 => Rape of Nanking, Dec. 13.
*1938 => Florey demonstrated medical use of Penicillin.
1938 => Vitamin e synthesized.
1939 => Vitamin k synthesized.
1941 => Cardiac catheterization invented by Dournand and Dickinson.
*1941 => December 7, attack on Perl Harbor.
*1944 => Avery (age 67), MacLeod, and McCarty show that DNA (not protein) is the hereditary material.
*1945 => August 6 and 9, atom bomb dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
1946 => Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.
*1947 => Transistor invented at Bell Labs.
1947 => Chloramphenicol.
*1948 => Claude Shannon (1916-2001) publishes "A Mathematical Theory of Communication."
*1949 => Atomic clock created.
*1949 => First commercial jet aircraft.
1949 => Linus Pauling shows a defective gene causes sickle cell anemia.
1950 => Chargoff discovers base complementarity in DNA.
*1952 => Isoniazid discovered.
1953 => Double helix.
1954 => Oral contraceptives.
1954 => Salk vaccine for polio.
1957 => Sabin vaccine for polio.
1957 => Sputnik.
*1958 => Jack Kilby invents integrated circuit, at Texas Instruments.
1959 => Russian probe lands on the moon.
*1959 => TRANSIT, the first operational satellite navigation system. Developed by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. Forerunner of GPS (Global Positioning system).
1960 => Laser.
1961 => Yury Gargarin first human in space.
1961 => Genetic code determined by Nirenberg and Khorana.
1962 => Paul Baran invents the internet, detailed in an 11-volume RAND (then a government agency) report delivered to the Pentagon.
1962 => Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring.
*1964 => Gulf of Tonkin resolution, following preliminary report that the Maddox had been fired upon.
*1966 => U.S. Freedom of Information Act (foia).
*1966 => MUMPS invented at Mass General by Octo Barnett and colleagues.
*1968 => Pueblo incident, Korea captures US surveillance ship.
1969 => Humans on moon (2 successful moon flights in 1969).
*1969 => Internet becomes reality, under the name of ARPANET.
*1970 => Raymond Damadian, a medical doctor and research scientist, discovered the basis for using magnetic resonance imaging as a tool for medical diagnosis.
1971 => Texas Instrument markets first transistor calculator. Weighed 2.5 pounds and cost $150.
*1972 => Raymond Damadian files patent for MRI (patent 3789832). First MRI completed 1977
1972 => CAT scan
1972 => First email program was created by Ray Tomlinson of BBN
1973 => Development began on the protocol later to be called TCP/IP, it was developed by a group headed by Vinton Cerf from Stanford and Bob Kahn from DARPA.
*1976 => Fair use provisions in Copyright Act of 1976
*1977 => Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH)
*1977 => Woese newly discovers oldest branch of life, Archaee. His work was ridiculed until the mid-1990s, when biologists finally yielded to the overwhelming scientific data supporting his assertion.
*1980 => Bayh-Dole act permitting grantees to own inventions made under federal funding
*1983 => Warren and Marshall publish on [later named] H. pylori gastritis
*1983 => Richard Stallman founds free software movement
1983 => On January 1st, every machine connected to ARPANET had to use TCP/IP. TCP/IP became the core Internet protocol
*1986 => Lee Hood, tags DNA with 4 dyes, opens way to automate DNA sequencing
*1987 => Larry Wall releases first version of Perl
*1990 => Hubble space telescope orbits 381 miles from earth
*1990 => Tim Berners-Lee and CERN in Geneva implements a hypertext system to provide efficient information access to the members of the international high-energy physics community.
*1996 => The initial XML draft was presented in 1996 at a conference in Boston. The official W3C specification (XML 1.0) was presented in 1998.
*1997 => Dolly the sheep cloned by British team (Ian Wilmut et al)
*2005 => Google Earth
*2006 => Yamanaka and coworkers induce somatic cells to behave like embyronic stem cells, by transfecting 4 transcription factors into mouse fibroblast cells
Most dates came from Asimov's Chronology
Asimov I. Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery. Harper Collins,
New York, 1994.
* next to dates/events not supplied by Asimov's chronology
Last modified: September 3, 2008
